Keyboard Shortcuts

More than 100 Keyboard Shortcuts:

Keyboard Shortcuts (Microsoft Windows)
1. CTRL+C (Copy)
2. CTRL+X (Cut)
... 3. CTRL+V (Paste)
4. CTRL+Z (Undo)
5. DELETE (Delete)
6. SHIFT+DELETE (Delete the selected item permanently without placing the item in the Recycle Bin)
7. CTRL while dragging an item (Copy the selected item)
8. CTRL+SHIFT while dragging an item (Create a shortcut to the selected item)
9. F2 key (Rename the selected item)
10. CTRL+RIGHT ARROW (Move the insertion point to the beginning of the next word)
11. CTRL+LEFT ARROW (Move the insertion point to the beginning of the previous word)
12. CTRL+DOWN ARROW (Move the insertion point to the beginning of the next paragraph)
13. CTRL+UP ARROW (Move the insertion point to the beginning of the previous paragraph)
14. CTRL+SHIFT with any of the arrow keys (Highlight a block of text)
SHIFT with any of the arrow keys (Select more than one item in a window or on the desktop, or select text in a document)
15. CTRL+A (Select all)
16. F3 key (Search for a file or a folder)
17. ALT+ENTER (View the properties for the selected item)
18. ALT+F4 (Close the active item, or quit the active program)
19. ALT+ENTER (Display the properties of the selected object)
20. ALT+SPACEBAR (Open the shortcut menu for the active window)
21. CTRL+F4 (Close the active document in programs that enable you to have multiple documents opensimultaneously)
22. ALT+TAB (Switch between the open items)
23. ALT+ESC (Cycle through items in the order that they had been opened)
24. F6 key (Cycle through the screen elements in a window or on the desktop)
25. F4 key (Display the Address bar list in My Computer or Windows Explorer)
26. SHIFT+F10 (Display the shortcut menu for the selected item)
27. ALT+SPACEBAR (Display the System menu for the active window)
28. CTRL+ESC (Display the Start menu)
29. ALT+Underlined letter in a menu name (Display the corresponding menu) Underlined letter in a command name on an open menu (Perform the corresponding command)
30. F10 key (Activate the menu bar in the active program)
31. RIGHT ARROW (Open the next menu to the right, or open a submenu)
32. LEFT ARROW (Open the next menu to the left, or close a submenu)
33. F5 key (Update the active window)
34. BACKSPACE (View the folder onelevel up in My Computer or Windows Explorer)
35. ESC (Cancel the current task)
36. SHIFT when you insert a CD-ROMinto the CD-ROM drive (Prevent the CD-ROM from automatically playing)

Dialog Box - Keyboard Shortcuts
1. CTRL+TAB (Move forward through the tabs)
2. CTRL+SHIFT+TAB (Move backward through the tabs)
3. TAB (Move forward through the options)
4. SHIFT+TAB (Move backward through the options)
5. ALT+Underlined letter (Perform the corresponding command or select the corresponding option)
6. ENTER (Perform the command for the active option or button)
7. SPACEBAR (Select or clear the check box if the active option is a check box)
8. Arrow keys (Select a button if the active option is a group of option buttons)
9. F1 key (Display Help)
10. F4 key (Display the items in the active list)
11. BACKSPACE (Open a folder one level up if a folder is selected in the Save As or Open dialog box)

Microsoft Natural Keyboard Shortcuts
1. Windows Logo (Display or hide the Start menu)
2. Windows Logo+BREAK (Display the System Properties dialog box)
3. Windows Logo+D (Display the desktop)
4. Windows Logo+M (Minimize all of the windows)
5. Windows Logo+SHIFT+M (Restorethe minimized windows)
6. Windows Logo+E (Open My Computer)
7. Windows Logo+F (Search for a file or a folder)
8. CTRL+Windows Logo+F (Search for computers)
9. Windows Logo+F1 (Display Windows Help)
10. Windows Logo+ L (Lock the keyboard)
11. Windows Logo+R (Open the Run dialog box)
12. Windows Logo+U (Open Utility Manager)
13. Accessibility Keyboard Shortcuts
14. Right SHIFT for eight seconds (Switch FilterKeys either on or off)
15. Left ALT+left SHIFT+PRINT SCREEN (Switch High Contrast either on or off)
16. Left ALT+left SHIFT+NUM LOCK (Switch the MouseKeys either on or off)
17. SHIFT five times (Switch the StickyKeys either on or off)
18. NUM LOCK for five seconds (Switch the ToggleKeys either on or off)
19. Windows Logo +U (Open Utility Manager)
20. Windows Explorer Keyboard Shortcuts
21. END (Display the bottom of the active window)
22. HOME (Display the top of the active window)
23. NUM LOCK+Asterisk sign (*) (Display all of the subfolders that are under the selected folder)
24. NUM LOCK+Plus sign (+) (Display the contents of the selected folder)

MMC Console keyboard shortcuts

1. SHIFT+F10 (Display the Action shortcut menu for the selected item)
2. F1 key (Open the Help topic, if any, for the selected item)
3. F5 key (Update the content of all console windows)
4. CTRL+F10 (Maximize the active console window)
5. CTRL+F5 (Restore the active console window)
6. ALT+ENTER (Display the Properties dialog box, if any, for theselected item)
7. F2 key (Rename the selected item)
8. CTRL+F4 (Close the active console window. When a console has only one console window, this shortcut closes the console)

Remote Desktop Connection Navigation
1. CTRL+ALT+END (Open the Microsoft Windows NT Security dialog box)
2. ALT+PAGE UP (Switch between programs from left to right)
3. ALT+PAGE DOWN (Switch between programs from right to left)
4. ALT+INSERT (Cycle through the programs in most recently used order)
5. ALT+HOME (Display the Start menu)
6. CTRL+ALT+BREAK (Switch the client computer between a window and a full screen)
7. ALT+DELETE (Display the Windows menu)
8. CTRL+ALT+Minus sign (-) (Place a snapshot of the active window in the client on the Terminal server clipboard and provide the same functionality as pressing PRINT SCREEN on a local computer.)
9. CTRL+ALT+Plus sign (+) (Place asnapshot of the entire client window area on the Terminal server clipboardand provide the same functionality aspressing ALT+PRINT SCREEN on a local computer.)

Microsoft Internet Explorer Keyboard Shortcuts
1. CTRL+B (Open the Organize Favorites dialog box)
2. CTRL+E (Open the Search bar)
3. CTRL+F (Start the Find utility)
4. CTRL+H (Open the History bar)
5. CTRL+I (Open the Favorites bar)
6. CTRL+L (Open the Open dialog box)
7. CTRL+N (Start another instance of the browser with the same Web address)
8. CTRL+O (Open the Open dialog box,the same as CTRL+L)
9. CTRL+P (Open the Print dialog box)
10. CTRL+R (Update the current Web page)
11. CTRL+W (Close the current window)

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The Kidney Structure & Function

The kidneys are a pair of fist-sized organs located outside the peritoneal cavity on each side of the spine. Together with the skin and the respiratory system, the kidneys are the body's primary excretory organs. The kidney is a highly specialized organ that maintains the internal environment of the body by selectively excreting or retaining various substances according to specific body needs. The importance of urine formation and excretion as a life-sustaining function is highlighted in situations in which kidney function is suddenly lost. Without at least one functioning kidney, death can occur within a few days.

Urine is a very complex fluid comprised of 95% water and 5% solids. The approximately one to one and one-half liters of urine excreted each day are the end product of

metabolism carried out by billions of cells in the renal and urinary systems. 

The nephron is the kidney's primary functional unit. Each kidney has about 1 million nephrons. Each nephron contains a filtering system known as a glomerulus, and a tubule, through which the filtered liquid passes. Each glomerulus consists of a capillary network surrounded by a membrane called Bowman's capsule. The afferent arteriole carries blood from the renal artery into the glomerulus, where it divides to form a circulatory network. At the distal end of the glomerulus, the capillaries rejoin to form the efferent arteriole through which blood leaves the glomerulus. 

A large amount of circulating blood flows through the kidneys. Approximately 25% of the cardiac output or 1200 ml of blood per minute is received by the kidneys. One liter of urine is the end product of more than 1000 liters of circulating blood processed through the kidneys. Urine formation begins in the glomerular capillaries, with dissolved substances passing into the proximal tubule as a result of the force of blood pressure in the large afferent arteriole and the pressure in Bowman's capsule.

The renal tubule is responsible for reabsorption and secretion. Reabsorption is the process of moving solutes from the tubules and reabsorbing or returing them to the bloodstream. Some substances such as glucose and sodium are reabsorbed until the plasma level reaches a specific concentration known as the renal threshold. Secretion is the process of transporting solutes into the renal tubule so that they can be excreted in the urine. Secretion allows substances such as hydrogen ions to be eliminated at a rate that exceeds glomerular filtration. Both reaborption and secretion are controlled by the selective permeability of different areas of the renal tubule to water, sodium, and urea (a by-product of protein metabolism) and the response of the distal collecting tubules in the kidney to hormones such as aldosterone, antidiuretic hormone, and parathyroid hormone.

The kidney has a remarkable ability to dilute or concentrate urine, according to an individual's changing physiological needs, and to regulate electrolyte excretion. Impaired renal function has adverse effects on blood chemistry, blood pressure, fluid balance, nutrient intake, and the person's general state of health. When kidney function becomes compromised by disease, the processes of glomerular filtration and renal tubular reabsorption and secretion become affected. Blood and urine biochemical tests reflect the extent of this dysfunction. Renal function tests are used to screen for kidney disease, to help determine the cause of kidney disease, the to determine the extent of renal dysfunction.

Renal failure is a loss of renal function characterized by uremia, the retention of nitrogenous wastes in the blood. Acute renal failure is rapid in onset and can often be reversed. Acute renal failure is classified as prerenal, renal, and postrenal failure. Prerenal failure is caused by decreased blood flow to the kidneys, as occurs with congestive heart failure. Renal failure results from injury to the kidney’s glomeruli and tubules. The most common causes of renal failure are glomerulonephritis, pyelonephritis, and tubular damage caused by drugs, heavy metals, and viral infection. Post renal failure is caused by obstruction in the urinary tract below the kidneys. This can occur from urinary tract stones, tumors, and anatomic obstruction due to benign prostatic hypertrophy. Chronic renal failure has a slow onset, may follow episodes of acute renal failure, and is not reversible. Chronic renal failure often results from acute glomerulonephritis or pyelonephritis. Other reasons for chronic renal failure include diabetes mellitus, atherosclerosis of the renal blood vessels, hypertension, polycystic kidney disease, and kidney stones.

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